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racism on black people is very common in the United States of America. The reason is very simple. There are some black sheep in this country who do not want blacks to live there. To bring the voice of Black, The Color Purple was introduced in 2005 on Broadway. Basically, it was the novel, which was introduced in 1985. At that time, the film had collected a lot of popularity, but after the arrival of this work, people liked to see him play again and again. For this reason, the tickets are in demand to purple.

Female black empowerment in The Color Purple

This work has received awards most hard because they had said that the musical will get valuable prizes for the wonderful show. This work is a demanding show, you can never lose because black women are concerned that penetrates many different things and make decisions in your life. It is an impressive work which can have a excellent control of his nerves and that can make your time. Where would watch this game, you do not want to lose his seat, preferring to stay with her until the end.

You can not know to buy tickets in purple, you should take the help of the Internet so you can reserve your book quickly. It would be a fantastic experience to see this musical, which tells the tale directly to the audience. That’s because people like this game and many critics have been allocated money to this tragedy. People like coming to the theater to see something real that does not depend on the fiction and illusion. This work is outside of these things realistically and focuses on racism, which is underway and running smoothly today’s world.

Open your eyes to reality

You should keep under constant review theater tickets so you can tackle real life. You should make plans with friends to see how racism can affect their lives. This is what can never be overlooked and always pay attention at all times. People were humiliated just for this problem, so it should come to the theater to buy tickets for purple realistic. When you see the game can really open your eyes and you know what is really happening around them.

Be the first to buy tickets online

This musical is fantastic to see what to do in an emergency to enter your tickets online purple. You should reckon about the game each friend with a look at this work, which has a lot of wonderful and was represented by actors enthusiastic and sensitive. Tickets are available on the Internet to be the first to get it. When you’re sitting in front of the stage, you will delight in experiencing the real thing on TV is not always

The stylish Samsung Blade comes with a touch screen and a music player which can play audio files in all formats like WMA, MP3 and AAC. The phone is also known for the facility of FM radio. Excellent news for all music lovers!

The 3G HSDPA technology is indeed a revelation. But the best thing about this phone from Samsung is the internal storage capacity of the phone which is 50 mb. If you want, you can expand the memory with Miscro SD memory card. Initially memory capacity will be expanded to 4 GB, but if you want, you can expand the memory to 8 GB.

The phone has full support of quad band. The touch screen is 2. 8 inches wide and the best thing about the touch screen is that has 16 million color displays. The phone comes with a 3. 1 megapixel camera along with LED flash. The 3G touch screen of the phone has impressed the users. This phone is now exclusively available with Vodafone network. It is the design of the phone which can be described by only one adjective which is breathtaking.

The curvaceous designed casing helps the users to find out all the navigation keys and call keys easily. The keys are found in the front section of the phone. There is an in-built gesture control which helps the users to control the activities of the touch screen just by a simple wave of hand. The casing weighs about 92 grams. The handset is solid and there is small danger of getting it hurt. Now, as for the measurements, this phone stands rather tall over the others with a 10. 28 cm height. It is 1. 29 cm deep and certainly 5. 48 wide cm wide.

You can really carry the handset in one hand. The phone is known to support polyphonic sound ringtones. As they say, carrying Samsung Blade is like carrying your own music player. You can download ringtones in WAV and MP3 formats. The FM radio in the phone comes with a RDS feature. Now you can hear everything, from sports commentaries, weather reports and even the latest music chats from the radio stations.

There is an in-built music player in the phone which helps the users not only to download music, but transfer them as well to the Samsung S5600 Blade. You can play the music which you have downloaded at your leisure. There is a special turn to mute feature in the phone which really manages to mute the music with a simple twist of the handset. There is a separate music recognition feature in the phone.

This helps the users to locate the name of the song, if they like the music. This is right for unknown songs. The user will have to record a small part of the song, and the rest will be done by the music recognition system. The system will provide all the essential details like the name of the band, the name of the song, and also the name of the artist if the song is a solo number. The phone fully supports the DNSe sound. You can now share your messages with your family members and friends. Messaging is fun in new Samsung Blade.

the tropical moist forest is a forest of tall trees in the area of heat throughout the year. Average 50 to 260 inches (125-660 cm). Annual rainfall. The tropical forests of the group of wet weather. Temperature of the forest rarely exceeds 93 ° F (34 ° C) or below 68 ° F (20 ° C), the average humidity is between 77 and 88%, rainfall is often greater than 100 inches year. In general, a small period of less rain. monsoon system in the region has a dry season. Nearly all forests are located near the equator. Tropical forests now cover less than 6% of Earth’s surface. Researchers believe that more than half of all plant and animal species in the world live in tropical forests. Rainforests produce 40% oxygen in the earth. Tropical forests have a greater variety of trees than any other region. Scientists have estimated about 100,300 species 2 1/2-acre (1 ha) area in South America. Seventy percent of companies in the jungle trees. Approximately a quarter of all medicines we use come from rainforest plants. Curare is a tropical plant used for anesthesia and muscle relaxation during surgery. Quinine tree on what used to treat malaria. lymphatic is a person 99% chance that the disease was to retire as I rose. More than 1,400 varieties of tropical plants for potential treatments for cancer. All tropical forests are similar to some extent. Many tree trunks are not lines that start at 100 meters or more. No sense of sown areas under the hood, which is a small light. Most of the trees is smooth, thin bark because there is no need to protect them from loss of water and antifreeze. It also makes it hard for epiphytes and plant parasites, extracts of strain. Bark of different species is so similar that it is hard to determine from the bark of the tree. Many trees can be picked flowers. Despite these differences, each of the three forests – in America, Africa and Asia – is another group of species. Each rain forest has many species of monkeys, all different from the other two forests. Moreover, different regions of a forest, other species. Many species of trees that grow in the mountains of Amazonian forests will not grow in the same deciduous forests.

Mentioned below are few of the fascinating facts about Australia:

Australia is known to be the largest inhabited island in addition to the smallest continent in the world as well as the least populated continent all across the world.

The country of Australia is the merely English-speaking country all across the whole world that has made obligatory voting in federal as well as state elections.

The secret ballot box that has been so widely utilized in democratic states in the present days was foremost initiated in the city of Victoria around 1856.

Australia shows off of being an abode to the leading electorate all across the whole world, known as Kalgoorlie (2,255,278 sq km).

Additional fascinating facts about Australia:

The highest extend of railways all across the world, which measures around 478. 4 km in its length, is positioned in Western Australia, and flanked by the townships of Nurina and Ooldia.

The Fantastic Barrier Reef that is been located in Australia known to be the longest coral reefs in the world, moreover measures quite more than 2,012. 5 km.

The total length of coastline for Australia is approximately 36,735 km.

It is said that in the land of Australia there is no place, which is located at a distance of over 1000 km as of the sea.

The foremost radio station in the country of Australia was been crafted in the year 1912 as well as the initial television station was been constructed in the year 1956.

The renowned Opera House, which is positioned in Sydney, was plotted in the year 1957 by a Danish architect named Jorn Utzon. The roof of Opera house weighs over 161,000 tons.

Sydney Tower that is sited at an elevation of 324. 8m on top of sea level at its core point, makes it the highest building in southern hemisphere.

There are more than 150 million sheep in Australia and only around 20 million people.

The chief meteorite depression in the world, which is known as Wolf Creek, is located in Western Australia. The dept of the depression is around 61m as well as its diameter is around 853. 44m.

Sydney had the dispensation of being the location of the Olympic Games that were held in the year 2000.

Australia shows off of having one of the few highest degrees of city concentration all across the world.

‘The Melbourne Cup’ which is really is a horse race that takes place every year is been declared as the public holiday in Melborne

Australia has the principal cattle station (also known as ranch) in the entire world, which measures approximately 30,028 square km. The size of the ranch is approximately the similar as that of the entire size of Belgium.

The few vital facts about Australia include Tasmania boasts of having the cleanest air in the world.

The second major population of Greeks all across the world resides in Melbourne, subsequent merely to Athens.

Australia is the leading exporter of coal, alumina, wool, diamonds, lead, sheep, refined zinc ores as well as mineral sands all across the world.

Medicare and Medicaid. Is there a difference? For adult children who are starting to consider eldercare solutions, these programs can trigger a bout of head scratching. Will they pay for eldercare at home? Will Mom be forced into the poorhouse before receiving benefits? This guide will give you an overview of basic Medicare and Medicaid facts. Fact #1 – Medicaid does not necessarily pick up the bill when Medicare stops paying. The federal Medicare program provides benefits regardless of income or the value of assets. In contrast, the federal/state-funded Medicaid program is specifically designed to provide medical benefits for those in need, such as people with low-income or disabilities. Once a senior has exhausted Medicare benefits for eldercare solutions, he or she will only receive Medicaid if they meet their state’s standard of eligibility. Fact #2 – Medicare pays for home care or nursing care under very specific conditions. The Medicare program will cover the cost of certain levels of care—but only in certain situations. For example, it will pay for skilled care or rehabilitation services only after your loved one has been hospitalized. Even then Medicare only covers the costs for up to 100 days. The result is that your family won’t be able to count on this program as a primary source of eldercare solutions funds. Medicare also doesn’t cover most eldercare at home situations either. Fact #3 – Medicaid applications can be a time-consuming process. There’s nothing simple about applying for this government program. One reason is that although the program receives federal funds, it’s administered by each individual state. That means there are 50 different ways to apply for this program, and you’ll need to research to find out what your state requires. Despite the varying application processes, your senior parent will need demonstrate that they are financially needy enough for Medicaid. In general, applicants are questioned to produce bank statements, pay stubs, proof of age, proof of citizenship, income sources (such as social security or veteran’s benefits), and insurance policies. Perhaps Mom isn’t ready to apply for Medicaid yet. It’s still a smart thought to make sure you know exactly what your state’s application process entails and what documents your parent will need to show. Then, if Mom suddenly suffers a catastrophic illness, you’ll be saved the distress of digging through shoe boxes for vital documents. Fact #4 – Seniors are penalized if they transfer assets to become Medicaid eligible. Reckon that Dad can qualify for Medicaid quicker if he sells you his $10,000 boat for $100? Reckon again. The system imposes a penalty for asset transfers that are less than honest market value. What’s more, the state will look for transfers that go back as far as five years. If transfers are made, they’ll use a formula to determine how long Dad will have to wait to receive benefits. Medicare and Medicaid can be a baffling bureaucratic conundrum for many. Help your parent find an eldercare solution that works by learning how these two programs operate. Fact #5 – Seniors must sell their homes to qualify for Medicaid. Although state requirements vary, the home doesn’t count as an asset unless it’s worth more than $500,000. In addition, some states don’t consider the home as an asset if the patient intends to return there. It also won’t be counted as an asset if a spouse, minor child or disabled child lives in the home.

The F Factor Diet is recommended by nutritionist Tanya Zuckerbrot. Zuckerbrot is a private practitioner based in the Miami Beach and New York City. While practicing her profession, she came across customers who were interested in dieting. To eliminate fad diets on their list, she conceptualized her own diet formula known as the F Factor Diet.

This diet is really found in the F Factor Diet book. The primary aim of this diet is to help people shed pounds and increase energy levels while also lowering cholesterol and reducing heart attack and diabetes risks. The F Factor Diet principle is to help you introduce fiber in your daily meals without sacrificing the taste you are craving for.

The Facts about the F Factor Diet

Since the F Factor Diet concentrates much on fiber intake, it is best to know facts about how fiber contributes to a healthier you.

1. As Sari Greaves – spokesperson to the American Dietetic Association – said, fiber is essential in weight loss. Fiber has the capacity to promote fullness thus lessening your food cravings that can often lead to weight gain.

2. She also said that fiber is a non-digestive component. With this F Factor Diet fact, fiber will never add calories to your body.

3. The F Factor Diet is not as simple as others reckon it is though. Shifting from a diet that is low in fiber to a high-fiber diet should be done gradually. As Greaves said, it is best to add at least 5 grams of fiber in your daily meal until such time you aim at 25 grams daily. The gradual process is required to get rid of bloating and any other uncomfortable feeling that may arise due to your shift to the F Factor Diet.

4. The success of the F Factor Diet will also depend on your willingness to give up your usual food to one that contains high fiber content. So if you are used to eating sugary cereals, it is best to replace that with raspberries combined with Greek yogurt. You can also indulge in high fiber cereals. In addition, you can use the following F Factor Diet tips:

a. Stop indulging in white pasta and rice. Eat brown rice or whole grain pasta as substitute. In line with this, you should always look for whole grain ingredients in your bread.

b. Focus on salads and vegetables in your main course. Carbohydrates, protein and fruit should only be secondary components of your meal.

c. You may also eat frozen vegetables if you are in an F Factor Diet. They are as nutritious as freshly-bought vegetables.

d. Drinking water is also essential.

The Myths on the F Factor Diet

While a high fiber diet seems to be nutritious, there are still some myths that you need to know about it. One of which is that the high fiber diet can eliminate inflammatory bowel diseases, Candida, ulcerative colitis and IBS.

Truth is that the high-fiber diet does not really cure inflammatory bowel diseases as claimed by a lot of people. It can even make the situation worse thus causing intestinal irregularity. This was proven by the author of Nutrition and Physical Degeneration, Wilson A. Price, DDS.

This is also supported by Karsten Anderson and Vilhjalmur Steffanson during those times when they lived with Eskimos. They found out that Eskimos have meat diets that do not contain any fiber yet these people have very healthy digestive systems. No one in the entire population ever encountered any kind of cancer.

Indians from the North American Plains also indulged in a diet that is far from what the F Factor Diet offers. In fact, their primary food was buffalo meat. In some instances, the meat was shredded before they were mixed with buffalo stout. For ordinary people, this can sound unhealthy but the truth is that these natives did not experience any inflammatory bowel disease with these supposed terrible eating habits.

The Bottom Line on the F Factor Diet

The F Factor Diet may somehow be a excellent thought for some people who want to be healthy. But it is not safe to assume that this is the best diet for everyone. Fiber can be of fantastic help but not at all times. In fact, even in a low-stout diet, at least 20% of the excellent fats are also required in a meal.

To build muscle mass, lose stout is a common ambition of many aspiring sports athletes and muscle builders in particular. The two concepts at first view may appear to contradict one another for the reason that their physiological demands are different. To build lean muscle, it not only requires high resistance, low repetition type of weight training exercise, but also a high calorie ingestion to supply the growth. To reduce body stout, scientific discipline needs a lower nutrition and calorie intake. Hence develop muscle mass, reduce stout sounds to be a contrary phenomena. But, to build lean muscle, lose body stout, we need to be able to focus on a few key physiological principles when training.

Research has evidenced that muscle tissues offer a higher metabolism rate than most tissues in the entire body. As a result they take in more oxygen and consume a lot more calories even at sleep. By developing more muscular tissues, an sportsman could really consume more calories within the body system. Hence, the first prescription to develop muscle, reduce body stout is to bulk up with muscles. The increased muscle mass mass would facilitate the burning of body stout as well. To achieve this, one can also make use of weightlifting treatments that make you buy muscle mass mass quick. Of course we may find it hard to use this treatment in isolation. Any healthy training regime to build muscle mass, lose body stout must take into account the nutritional factor as well.

In order to gain muscle tissue using a weight loss healthy diet plot necessitates a part of ingenuity. The body chemistry needs energy to consume when performing exercises. This arrives from the food we eat. The predominant fuel the body uses primarily to produce energy is carbohydrates. After that, the body will start the process using up body stout stores within the system. If an athlete can spend a low carbohydrate, high protein diet, it will imply that less carbohydrate will be available for exercise. The body may after that draw on your stout store, to fuel the physical exercise requirements. The muscle mass increase triggered through workout will use the building blocks from the higher protein ingestion. This formula of physical exertion and a low carbohydrate, high protein diet will really help the sportsperson to build muscle mass, get rid of body stout.

Now to improve the benefits of build lean muscle, lose stout, the sportsman can look into the form of workout activities been performed. As mentioned earlier, to build musculature, high resistance, low repetition is considered most advantageous model of exercising to generate growth. Whenever a certain amount of lean muscle mass is attained, the sportsman may possibly next alternate between high resistance, low repetition training and low intensity, high repetition training. The latterreally widely known as ‘cutting training’. High repetition training is effectively cardio exercise in nature that burn more body stout than carbohydrate in the body. This will facilitate the entire body to reduce the excess stout in the system for a build muscle mass, lose stout physique.

Your three simple key facts of gaining muscles, using a low carbohydrate, high protein diet and varying of routine type and intensity will go a long way in assisting those who would really like to build muscle, lose body stout achieve their objectives of a fitter and leaner physique.

Bodybuilding supplements are nowadays becoming more and more common among the people especially the youth. Every single male feels complex if another person comes in front of him having more bulky muscles than himself. So in order to compete in the race of looking excellent, every person these days is trying to build muscle mass on his body. This too is done by the shortest possible way by them by adopting these bodybuilding supplements. Most bodybuilding supplements include ingredients which occur naturally in the body. Because of this, there are very few side effects associated with taking bodybuilding supplements. The most common side effect is upset stomach and diarrhea. Most side effects go away within a few weeks. There are some supplements which have more serious side effects, but most supplements do not.

Once bodybuilding supplement marketers know how keen bodybuilders, and fitness buffs passionately desire quick muscle gain, they tend to market very intensely to this results hungry market. Beware – not everything you read in their advertising is right. As a matter of fact, most of their claims are not right. Just page through a muscle magazines. Look at all the claims. My goodness, they sound way too excellent to be right, don’t they?Once bodybuilding supplement marketers know how keen bodybuilders, and fitness buffs passionately desire quick muscle gain, they tend to market very intensely to this results hungry market. Beware – not everything you read in their advertising is right. As a matter of fact, most of their claims are not right. Just page through a muscle magazines. Look at all the claims. My goodness, they sound way too excellent to be right, don’t they?

When it comes to building muscle mass you just can’t expect to achieve any lasting results without consuming enough muscle building protein. While it’s certainly possible to eat enough whole food protein to sustain muscle growth, after a while it can become a serious chore to choke down chicken breast after chicken breast. This is where a high quality whey protein supplement can come into play. In fact it is regarded as the safest way possible for optimum health, nutrition and growth of muscle. There are some gels which would highlight your total masculinity to make your body look even larger and well defined. To gain that rich tan in a few seconds you can use another discount bodybuilding supplement which guarantees you the ultimate dark red bronze color which can make you leave behind your competitors in an instant. The smooth, sheen and sleek look can also be achieved by you using this range and is also known to be the favorite of all the world class bodybuilders and the fitness enthusiast.

If a person is not working out and is only taking bodybuilding supplements as his diet then they would be of no use and hence the body would become bulky containing lots of fats. The muscle growth of the body would not occur and the person would become unfit and unhealthy. So, proper exercise and diet are very essential for the effective usage of these supplements Besides these facts there are several side effects of these supplements that need to be discussed. As you can gather there are literally hundreds of different bodybuilding supplements on the market but the three mentioned above provide the best hope of obtaining additional muscle weight and increasing your workout intensity levels and post workout recuperation.

Ballenger Creek, Maryland is a growing community with a medium population of 15,457 as of 2007. The population is divided nearly equally between men and women. There are a few more women than men living in the town; 51% to 49%, with about 2,765 people per square mile. It’s a small town in Frederick County Maryland.

The estimated average household income of those living in the area is $72,276, which is about $5,000 more than the state average of $68,080. Frederick County is one of the top 1. 5 percent of America’s wealthiest counties, according to the U. S. Census Bureau.

The county is among the richest in Maryland, and Maryland is one of the richest states in the nation.

The report shows in 2003 Frederick had the 43rd-highest median income — $66,493 — among 3,140 counties, and placed fifth out of Maryland’s 23 counties and Baltimore City.

Within Maryland, only Carroll, Calvert, Montgomery and Howard counties — the latter placed eighth in the nation — had higher median incomes than Frederick.

Those who are living in and around the Ballenger Creek area that are 25 years of age and older; 91. 6% have a high school degree or higher, 33. 1% have received a Bachelor’s degree or higher, 9. 6% have a graduate or professional degree, and only 2. 2% are unemployed. The average time that Ballenger Creek residents take to travel to work is 30 minutes.

People living in Frederick County who are 15 years of age or higher; 22. 3% have never been married, 60% are now married, 2. 4% are separated, 5. 6% are widowed, and 9. 8% of residents living have been divorced.

There are a lot of different races living in the Frederick area. 81. 5% of the residents are white non-Hispanic, 10. 1% are black, 2% are two or more races, 1. 1% are of some other race, 0. 9% are Asian Indian, 0. 6% are American Indian and Korean, and 0. 5% of residents are Chinese.

The most common occupation for males in the area 21703 is that of computer specialists, for females it is; office and administrative support workers.

It is found that a mixture of honey and cinnamon cures most Diseases. Honey is produced in most of the countries of the world. Scientists of today also accept honey as a “Ram Ban” (very effective) medicine for all kinds of diseases. Honey can be used without any side Effects for any kind of diseases.

Today’s science says that even though honey is sweet, if taken in the right dosage as a medicine, it does not harm diabetic patients. Weekly World News, a Magazine in Canada , on its issue dated 17 January, 1995 has given the following list of diseases that can be cured by honey and cinnamon as researched by western scientists:

HEART DISEASES:

Make a paste of honey and cinnamon powder, apply on bread, instead of jelly and jam, and eat it regularly for breakfast. It reduces the cholesterol in the arteries and saves the patient from heart attack. Also, those who have already had an attack, if they do this Process daily they are kept miles away from the next attack. Regular use of the above process relieves loss of breath and strengthens the heart beat. In America and Canada , various nursing homes have treated patients successfully and have found that as you age, the arteries and veins lose their flexibility and get

clogged; honey and cinnamon revitalize the arteries and veins.

ARTHRITIS:

Arthritis patients may take daily, morning, and night, One cup of hot water with two spoons of honey and one small teaspoon of cinnamon powder. If taken regularly even chronic arthritis can be cured. In a recent research conducted at the Copenhagen University, it was found that when the doctors treated their patients with a mixture of one tablespoon honey and half teaspoon Cinnamon powder before breakfast, They found that within a week, out of the 200 people, So treated, practically 73 patients were really relieved of pain, and within a month, mostly all the patients who could not walk or go around because of arthritis started walking without pain.

BLADDER INFECTIONS:

Take two tablespoons of cinnamon powder and one teaspoon of honey in a glass of lukewarm water and drink it. It destroys the germs in the bladder.

TOOTHACHE:

 Make a paste of one teaspoon of cinnamon powder and five teaspoons of honey and apply on the aching tooth. This may be applied three times a day until the tooth stops aching.

CHOLESTEROL:

Two tablespoons of honey and three teaspoons of cinnamon powder mixed in 16 ounces of tea water, given to a cholesterol patient were found to reduce the level of cholesterol in the blood by 10 percent within two hours. As mentioned for arthritic patients, if taken three times a day, any chronic cholesterol is cured. According to information received in the said Journal, pure honey taken with food daily relieves complaints of cholesterol. By the way, if you’re taking cholesterol medicine, STOP! They all contain STATIN which weaken your muscles. . . including YOUR

HEART and none has been shown to stop heart attacks or strokes!!!!

COLDS:

Those suffering from common or severe colds should take one tablespoon lukewarm honey with 1/4 spoon cinnamon powder daily for three days. This process will cure most chronic cough, cold, and clear the sinuses.

UPSET STOMACH:

Honey taken with cinnamon powder cures stomach ache and also clears stomach ulcers from the root.

GAS:

According to the studies done in India and Japan , it is revealed that if honey is taken with cinnamon powder the stomach is relieved of gas.

IMMUNE SYSTEM:

Daily use of honey and cinnamon powder strengthens the immune system and protects the body from bacterial and viral attacks. Scientists have found that honey has various vitamins and iron in large amounts. Constant Use of honey strengthens the white blood corpuscles to

fight bacterial and viral diseases.

INDIGESTION:

Cinnamon powder sprinkled on two tablespoons of honey taken before food relieves acidity and digests the heaviest of meals.

INFLUENZA:

A scientist in Spain has proved that honey contains a natural ingredient which kills the influenza germs and Saves the patient from flu.

LONGEVITY:

Tea made with honey and cinnamon powder, when taken regularly, arrests the ravages of ancient age. Take four spoons of honey, one spoon of cinnamon powder and three cups of water and boil to make like tea. Drink 1/4 cup, three to four times a day. It keeps the skin fresh and soft and arrests ancient age. Life spans also increases and even a 100 year ancient, starts performing the chores of a 20-year-ancient.

PIMPLES:

Three tablespoons of honey and one teaspoon of cinnamon powder paste. Apply this paste on the pimples before sleeping and wash it next morning with warm water. If done daily for two weeks, it removes pimples from the root.

SKIN INFECTION:

Applying honey and cinnamon powder in equal parts on the affected parts, cures eczema, ringworm and all types of skin infections.

WEIGHT LOSS:

Daily in the morning one half hour before breakfast on an empty stomach and at night before sleeping, drink honey and cinnamon powder boiled in one cup of water. If taken regularly, it reduces the weight of even the most obese person. Also, drinking this mixture regularly does not allow the stout to accumulate in the body even though the person may eat a high calorie diet.

CANCER:

Recent research in Japan and Australia has revealed that advanced cancer of the stomach and bones have been cured successfully. Patients suffering from these kinds of cancer should daily take one tablespoon of honey with one teaspoon of cinnamon powder for one month three times a day.

FATIGUE:

Recent studies have shown that the sugar content of honey is more helpful rather than being detrimental to the strength of the body. Senior citizens, who take honey and cinnamon powder in equal parts, are more alert and flexible. Dr. Milton, who has done research, says that a half tablespoon of honey taken in a glass of water and sprinkled with cinnamon powder, taken daily after brushing and in the afternoon at about 3:00 p. m. when the vitality of the body starts to decrease, increases the vitality of the body within a week.

TERRIBLE BREATH:

People of South America , first thing in the morning, gargle with one teaspoon of honey and cinnamon powder mixed in hot water, so their breath stays fresh throughout the day.

HEARING LOSS:

Daily morning and night honey and cinnamon powder, taken in equal parts restore hearing

 

Readability Formulas: Facts and Limitations

Introduction

Is it simple to read text? How a text clearly expressing thoughts and emotions? How language difficulties of a given text and analyzed? These issues have been a major concern for designers of text, teachers and writers. In reality, these issues are intimately linked to the concept of readability. In an attempt to provide answers to these questions, so many studies and research has been conducted and, consequently, a large number of formulas have been proposed for measuring the readability of written texts.

In the theoretical part of this work, I will highlight some of the means used to determine the linguistic difficulties of written texts. Then I will clarify some of the most common examples of readability formulas and how they work. Finally, I will shed light on the limits and validity of these formulas. In the practical part, I will try to examine the readability of reading material using the formulas mentioned in the first half.

1 / The determination of the linguistic difficulties of a written text

Is it hard to read text, appears to be related to the existence or do not know the words of a text, and if these words are place together in an simple path to follow. In fact, the readability formulas to use these basic criteria and discuss in terms of difficulty of vocabulary and syntactic complexity (Olson, 1984). Vocabulary difficulty concerns the extent to which a text contains words that do not know and / or hard to know. syntactic complexity refers to the extent to which the text sentences were complicated grammatical structures. Now I will discuss these basic criteria.

a) difficulty of vocabulary

Word difficulty is a test used by nearly all standard readability formulas. The difficulty is measured by the presence or absence of a word in a list of common words, such as Kucera and Francis word list (1967) or the word length is determined by counting the number of syllables in the word . But, both methods seem to have serious limitations, as discussed below.

b) lists of words

A series of readability formulas such as Dale-Chall (Dale & Chall, 1948) Using the word lists. The assumption underlying the use of word lists to measure the difficulty of vocabulary in a text is often used words will be more familiar and therefore simpler to know. But, for a list of words that includes familiar or hard words, we must assume that the words in a language that is relatively stable, which is impossible due to the fact that the vocabulary tends to change honestly quickly. If we consider these words from the list of words Dale 3000 (Harrison, 1980, pp. 153-163): fork, maypole, shoes and laundry, it seems that these words may not be familiar to young readers (elementary school children), because they are rarely used (which are in fashion). On the other hand, some other words such as new releases, entered the language and the links have become very familiar to many, if not the majority. Now we can simply say that the words above, you must remove the list of words and words are added in its place. From a number of readability formulas use word lists age, one might infer that the results of using these formulas really represent or provide the exact level of the readability of texts written during .

In addition, lists of words does not take into account the different socio-cultural groups of the same generation have very different basic vocabularies. We can not take into account that different professional groups may have radically different vocabulary (and Lehrberg Kittredge, 1982). Another problem with the lists of words that words often have more than one meaning. In this case, what meaning should be considered as a pet? Only through viewing and discussion of the word in the context of a particular text, that can know the intended meaning. In conclusion, the list of words that are not provided or an indication that common sense is (the family), or a way to identify the meaning which is relevant in a specific context.

c) the complexity of the Word

Several readability formulas (eg, Fry graph, Flesch formula, Gunning Fog formula, see Harrison, 1980), a word, the more it is supposed to know. The thought applies in different ways. For Flesch and Fry formula, for example, the criterion is the number of syllables per 100 words of text, while the Gunning Fog formula, the criterion is the number of polysyllabic words. Regardless of how the word complexity is measured by different formulas, but, assumes that the word length is directly related to the ease or difficulty with which a text can be read.

The problem with this scenario is, but, that long words are not always the most hard to know. Instead, it appears that a significant number of cases in mono or bisyllabic words are more hard and unusual and polysyllabic words. If we consider the words currency and unemployment, the number of readers who know the latter term is more likely that those who know the former. In the above example, you can say the word length is often a direct result of the establishment (eg, adding a prefix or suffix – tion with shorter words and the word is derivative, such as unemployment). In reality, people are generally aware of the functions of these prefixes and suffixes, and thus a more complex word (a word with one or more affixes) can be as simple to know how a simple word. But still, reading formulas that count the number of syllables per hundred words for a text that forms of verbs invariable.

In addition, Randall (1988) experiments on the relationship between understanding and morphological complexity. tested children between the ages of 3 and 7 in their understanding of morphologically complex words (nouns derived from verbs by placing-ER). Their results suggest that understanding the complex terms has nothing to do with the word length or frequency of occurrence, as required by the readability formulas.

d) The syntactic complexity

Nearly all of readability formulas to equate length of sentence to the syntactic complexity. They believe there is a correlation between the average length of sentences in a text and the difficulty of the text. In fact, research shows that the length of sentences may really facilitate understanding, rather than prevent it. For example, the presence of conjunctions and logical connectors increases the length of the sentence, but they are often the explicit intention of communication link. Compare, for example, sentences (1) with sentence (2):

(1). a. I could not answer your e-mail.

b. All the computers were occupied.

(2) a. I could not answer your e-mail, because all teams were employed.

In (a) may be several reasons that the author was unable to respond to an e-mail other than the fact that all units were occupied, he would not have time to wait for a computer is free, it could a conference or meeting, so that he could not wait. . etc., because in (two) in the others behind, a clear link between the inability of the author to answer the e-mail to the occupation of all teams. In conclusion, based on the examples above, one could say that the syntactic complexity equivalent to the length of punishment is neither useful nor a specific criterion for measuring readability.

2 / Examples of readability formulas

There are a number of readability formulas that are designed for very different purposes, and for a variety of age groups. These formulas have been designed by psychologists, researchers and teachers in the classroom and have been calculated using different statistical techniques and measurement. In this section, I focus on only four of them for two reasons. First, these four are some of the readability formulas most commonly used. Second, they are very simple to use and requires no mathematical or statistical complex. These formulas are:

A) The Flesch formula

The Flesch formula is one of the most used and known readability measures developed by Flesch (1948). The formula uses the average number of words per sentence and the average number of syllables per 100 words as variables. Flesch was interested in the evaluation of adult reading materials, so they opted for an index of difficulty is not related to grades, but a theoretical understanding score of 100 (Hlarrison, 1980). When applied to a document, the Flesch formula result in a number between 0-100. The higher the score the more hard matter to read and know. In addition, Flesch had an episode of transformation that allows us to relate the readability score for the age level. This table is a nomograrn processing (a number) that can be used easily by using a rule among the columns left and right hand of the figure. The Flesch formula is used not only by hand, also used in most word processing programs like Microsoft Word. The only difference is that the adjustment formula for computing the Flesch, the number of syllables is replaced by a number of vowels gives nearly the same results as if there is one syllable. Research by Coca-Cola and Rothkopf (1970) showed that estimates vowels always rely very similar to counting syllables.

B) The graph Fry

Because most readability formulas, Fry is a factor graph syntax is the length of the sentence and a semantic factor is the number of syllables. The chart Fry is one of the simplest ways to obtain an index of readability. The use of graphics is very useful in this form for different reasons as shown by Harrison (1980):

1) save time doing calculations

2) that the visual information when the numerical results can give a fake impression of precision

3) the graphic user can tell at a glance if a passage is relatively more hard than the average in vocabulary or sentence length. (Harrison, 1980. P. 73)

In the graph, the curve represents the standard texts. Clearly then, the points on the line, or to the upper right quadrant, are represented the most hard passages average vocabulary. On the other hand, points below the curve to the left lower quadrant, suggesting greater than average length of sentence (ibid.). To implement the graphical Fry, one must first randomly select three sample passages exactly 100 words (from the beginning, middle and end of text). When the total number of sentences and syllables of each of the passages of 100 words was recorded, the average number of sentences and syllables is calculated. The resulting figures shown in Figure Fry and the resulting point coordinates associated with a designated grade level indicated (a more detailed explanation of the use will be posted to the practice.) Chart Fry is appropriate for the evaluation of quality materials at University (Fry, 1969).

C) Formula Fog Index

The Fog, index that uses only 100 successive words to determine the length of sentences at a time and the number of words of three syllables or more, was developed by Gunning (1968). The accounts are then fed into a formula and the difficulty of reading is based on educational attainment of formal education. For works already written, the author recommends selecting several samples of 100 words from different parts of matter and then consider the length of sentences and the number of words of three syllables or more for all samples. Finally, the average of the previous account, must be calculated and the fog readability index is:

Formula Fog Sensitivity: Level = 0. 4 * (average percentage of sentence + words of three syllables or more).

The formula is similar to that of Flesch. Factors (sentence length and number of words) remain the same, but the count of three one-syllable words will be simpler and requires less time than the program required by the number of Flesch. Another advantage is the simplicity of calculation needed to solve the equation. This formula is appropriate to evaluate the material for the fourth class in college.

D) The formula SMOG

This formula gives the SMOG grade is the reading level of a person has reached the limit if you want to know the text fully evaluated (Gilliland, 1972. P 94). To apply the SMOG formula, you must have 10 consecutive sentences near the beginning, 10 near the center and 10 at the end of the text. Then, in the 30 selected sentences, the number of words of three syllables or more is counted. Finally, the square root of the number of polysyllabic words is counted and added to 3. It is obvious here that the sentences are used to prepare the samples, not used in the calculation. The formula gives SMOG readability score of 2 degrees higher due to the overall success McLaughlin used as criteria for understanding (ibid.). Smog is quicker to work by hand, it does not need to count every word of every sentence, but the words of three syllables or more in 30 sentences.

If a text is less than thirty convictions, McLaughlin (1969) recommended that the number of polysyllabic words, and the number of convictions should be counted in the text. The process of finding the readability of a text under 30 words appearing in the practical part (examination of the text given). Also available in annex.

3 / Factors affecting the readability

As mentioned previously, nearly all use complex word readability, sentence length and syntactic complexity represented by the word length or number of syllables in a word. Many other factors that may affect the readability, to some extent have not been considered by these formulas. In this case, I will discuss how these factors affect the readability and why they should be taken into account to measure readability. The factors are:

a) Grammar

I mentioned that most readability formulas tend to equate the syntactic complexity with sentence length is really a very closely to see the complex syntax. For example, readability formulas ignore some fundamental issues such as the conventional use of the normative grammar for standard written English. In other words, they ignore the fact that errors or deviations from the grammar can make text harder to know and not take into account that the presence of a considerable number of grammatical errors can seriously affect the reader’s ability to know the text. If one considers the risk of confusion caused by a lack of parallelism, as in:

- Not only but also likes his wife.

In fact, it is unclear if the intended meaning of this sentence is that we do not like him and his wife, or that we are not the only ones who despise him, his wife does not like too. There are a few other grammatical errors can be a source of confusion in the written text and some of them are the enforcement of sentences, sentence fragments, faulty parallelism, and pronoun references. In conclusion, we could say that the grammatical errors should be considered in the process of measuring the readability of a text to make accurate and reliable measurement.

b) Style

Sometimes a text can be perfectly grammatical, but some stylistic features of text can make it relatively more hard for people to treat than others. One of these style properties is the number of clauses in a sentence and the nature of these clauses. In fact, there is empirical evidence that some syntactic properties that some texts are simpler to treat than others. For example, Van Dijk and Kintsch (1983) notes that sentences with relative clauses simpler to analyze when a relative pronoun is clearly present only when it is. Kintsch and Van DLI compare the following sentences and note that people perform better on comprehension tasks in (1) the apparent relative pronouns, as in (2), where they are absent;

1) The pen of the author of the editor liked used was new

2) written by the author to the editor liked used was new (Van Dijk and Kintsch, 1983, p. 29)

It is therefore clear that the syntactic structure of sentences is not the only style property of a text can affect legibility. The use of imagery is a stylistic feature that can cause problems for the reader, because understanding the figurative language requires more than just understanding the literal meaning of a text. readability formulas consider the style or stylistic features or not to measure the readability of a text, which in turn affects the accuracy of the overall results.

c) habitat

readability formulas judge a text to be simple or hard to measure the properties of the text, but never take into account the characteristics of readers. These different forms have been designed for use with Aboriginal and non-language students by second or foreign language. It is undeniable that these groups differ in their prior knowledge and their language skills and the ability to know written texts. There is evidence to suggest that the characteristics of players (which were ignored by the readability formulas) have much to do with his ability to know text. For example, Barry and Lazarte (1998) report results of a study on the effects of prior knowledge and syntactic complexity in memory and the generation of inferences in a second language Spanish students. Their results suggest a complex interaction between the level of syntactic complexity of the text itself and the knowledge of students before generating inferences about the text. Finally, one could say that the material is simple to read for one group to another so easily and it is partly because students have basic knowledge on various different subjects. Therefore, readability formulas should consider this vital factor in measuring the readability of a text.

d) textual coherence

Most readability formulas to limit the scope of its investigation to the choice of the border. On the other hand, to evaluate texts in terms of properties of each of his sentences contain. But, the readability of a text is not only a function of the average length of words or the average number or words in his sentences, the reading is more a function of connections and relations between sentences from a text. Pumping and Grafstein (1991) suggest that for a text beunderstandable should clearly indicate to the reader the logical relations between sentences from base to which he / she is able to determine from the text, who does what to whom. In other words, the sentences of a text should be logical and sequential relationships so that the text is simple to know. Finally, Harrison (1986) indicates that the presence of logical links explicitly mentioned often contributes to the coherence of a text.

4 / The limitations and validity of readability formulas

Although readability formulas are widely used and is based on the design of textbooks, has many limitations that may affect its validity to a certain extent. readability formulas were originally developed to try to ensure that a textbook for a particular type was suitable for native speaking children at this level of quality. But, even within the same class, children differ from each other and sometimes they are very large differences in the extent of readability formula itself can not be excellent for them. In other words, readability formulas do not distinguish between public, but rather assume that all players are equal. If this is the case of children whose mother tongue, these formulas are more likely to have more problems when used with students second or foreign language. Klare (1963, pp. 24-25) states that:

Formulas for measuring the unique style. They do not refer to content, organization, word order, the formatting or images. They do not take into account different effects, maturity, intelligence drives.

On this basis, it becomes clear to us that readability formulas are not intended to say anything about the shapes or other visual materials primarily, but these forms and other visual aids play an vital role in enabling the reader to know the text. In another related study, Klare (1976), reviewed 36 studies that have attempted to improve understanding by improving the readability scores. It concluded that greater understanding is not a excellent correlation with the levels of improved legibility, and readability formulas measure only what can be added to the text. The reason this experiment has not worked is that the measure of readability formulas that symptoms of readability. hard thoughts are usually expressed in a hard language (which is the case), thoughts will be less hard because the language is simplified. It is therefore clear that the trial on the level of difficulty of the text go beyond the statistical nature of readability formulas tend to rely on measures of semantics (or word length is usually the frequency of words) and syntactic (sentence length in general) characteristics.

Furthermore, readability formulas do not take into account the fact that there is an interaction between text and reader. Not take into account some vital factors on the side of the player’s knowledge of the text and their motivation to read. All these factors have a major effect on the text that makes it much simpler or hard to read much. All these formulas take into account is the text and ignore all other factors. Therefore, they are insufficient because they believe that the only source of information that is contained in the printed page.

Because readability formulas are designed to analyze prose, problems arise when these formulas are used to technicians, scientists, mathematicians and materials that contain large amounts of numeric and symbolic language and specialized vocabulary, and the prose. Of course, applies to this type of text, reading will continue to use traditional measures of word length and sentence length, and this in turn does not reflect the level of reading of these texts. Finally, and based on everything that is mentioned above, you should not use readability formulas as in the choice of materials, but must seek expert advice or obtaining a reliable consensus to examine the characteristics that formulas can not be predicted. Only if we integrate all these factors that readability formulas can be beneficial for us, otherwise I really did not leave a fantastic utility.

5 / Test reading texts.

In this part, I’ll apply readability formulas clarified above to measure the readability of two different texts. Let me start by examining the text (see Appendix 3) using the four formulas, and then I shall examine the text B (see Appendix 4) using the same formulas.

SMOG 4 / McLaughlin ‘Formula.

Because the text (B) has 30 words, I considered the number of phrases in the text and the total number of words of three syllables or more as recommended by McLaughlin (1969), see appendix (2).

The total number of phrases in the text B = 18

The total number of words of three syllables or more = 58

The corresponding conversion number = 1. 67

Grade = The total number of words of three syllables or more * The number conversion

= 58 * 1. 67 = 96. 86

The value 96. It is situated between 86 (91-110) of the SMOG conversion table 1. Therefore, the grade is 13.

As shown in the table above, there are formulas to meet with exactly the same age or reading. But, some forms reach very close to both the level and age, as in the formulas DOF Gunning and smog. Similarly, Larrick (1954) from the investment grade set by five types of two books for children. He learned that there were significant differences between formulations in terms of grade level. This underlines the fact that readability can not be measured accurately by merely using readability formulas. The student’s ability to know the style, and other factors that were mentioned in the first part should be taken into account and should never be ignored in the measure of readability.

Conclusion

In conclusion, researchers and designers of textbooks should be aware that the readability formulas using only one level does not reflect the actual reading of a text. In addition to these formulas, try to integrate all the other factors that could affect the readability of texts, whether these factors can be found in the text (word and sentence complexity) or outside texts (the factors that have to drive with the knowledge, motivation and individual differences among readers in the same class). Try to take these factors into account in measuring the readability of written materials. On the other hand, it should consult experts in reading and teachers to try to reach a consensus on the readability of texts and their adaptation to the level of undergraduate students.

Bibliography

Rescue, A and Grafstein, A. (199 1). The assignment of thematic roles in Ojibwa. Linguistics 29, 397-422.

Barry, S, Lazarte, A. A. (1998). The evidence of mental models: how knowledge, syntactic complexity and reading about for inference affect production in a recall task for nonnative readers of Spanish? The Modern Language Journal, 82 (2), 176-193.



Coca-Cola, E and Rothkopf, E (1970). Note on a simple algorithm for readability score produced by computer. Journal of Applied Psychology 54, 208-210.

Fry, E. (1969). Readability Chart validated at primary level. The reading teacher, 22, 534-538.

Olson, A. V. 1984. Readability Formulas reality or fiction. University of Victoria, British Columbia Service (ERIC Document Reproduction No. ED 258 143).



Kuceral, H and Francis, N. W. (1967). Computer Analysis courses in American English. Province, RI: Brown University Press.

Harrison, C. (1980). Accuracy in the classroom. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Harrison, C. (1986). New directions in research in reading texts. In Cashdan, Asher (Ed.), Literacy: teaching and learning language skills. Basil Blackwell, Oxford, pp. 61-81.

Kitteredge, R and Lehrberg, J. (Eds.) (1982). Sub-language: studies on the language in restricted domains. Berlin and New York: Walter de Gruyter.

McLaughlin, G. (1969), smog classification: a new reading formula. Reading Journal, 12 (8) 639-646.



Randall, J. H. (1988). Candlestick makers: the problem of morphology in word comprehension. In: Issues of readability Davidson, A & Green, G (Eds.), Linguistic complexity and text comprehension: reconsideration. ErIbaum L., Hillsdale, New Jersey, pp. 223-245.



Klare, G. R. (1963). The measurement of readability. Ames, IA: Iowa University Press.

Larrick, N. (1954). Try it in the setting. Library Journal, 79 (April), 729-733.



Van Dijk, T. A and Kintsch, W. (1983). Strategies of discourse comprehension. New York: Academic Press.

Gilliland, John. (1972). Readability. London: University Press of London.

Schedule (1)

EDWARD FRY’S GRAPHIC READABILITY

Schedule (2):

From: McLaughlin, G. (1969), smog classification: a new reading formula. Reading Journal, 12 (8) 639-646.

Use this formula and the conversion table smog If the material containing less than 30 sentences, but not less than 10 sentences.

1. Count the total number of judgments in the field.

2. Find the total number of convictions and the corresponding conversion in the smog of the conversion in Table II.

3. Multiply the total number of words of three syllables or more by the number of conversions. Use the number as the number of words to find the right level degree in Table 1.

SMOG Conversion Table 1 conversion SMOG 2

(For more material) (use of equipment

Appendix (3)

The three sample passages in the text (A)

A sampling:

Pets improve the health of children

Children who have pets at home have stronger immune systems and are less likely to take days off from school due to illness, a study suggests.

Researchers at the University of Warwick, Coventry found that having a cat or dog exposed children to more infections early in life.

But, this exposure boosted his immune system in the medium term, means that these children attend school more often, on average, than students who do not have pets.

The authors said the benefits were more pronounced among children aged between five and eight years.

Dr. June McNicholas and colleagues tested the saliva of 138 (eight not included).

Second example

High levels of IgA suggest that the immune system is under pressure while low levels indicate that it is vulnerable to infection.

Health

The study showed that antibody levels in children of pet owners have been much more stable, which indicates they have a strong immune system.

children have been found that the Pet acquisition of nine additional days in school throughout the year compared to those without animals.

According to researchers, the results seem to support the so-called “dirty hypothesis”.

It is suggested that cleaning too early in life can leave a weakened immune system later.

Three samples:

Mr. McNicholas, a health psychologist who led the study, said: “Having a pet was associated with significantly improved attendance rates.

“This is evident in all classes, but was most pronounced in elementary school (grades one to three, groups of five to eight).”

“Here, pet owners have benefited from schooling to 18 half-days more per year than their non-pet owners.”

But, Dr McNicholas warned that the animals may also pose risks to the health of children.

One of the largest risks is the worm that infects dogs Canis toxic and can cause stomach ache to eye hurt.

Annex (4):

The three channels shown in the text (B):

A sampling:

Pets and children: a lifelong friendship

Is it her voice starts to sound like a broken record? Have you always tough their children with homework? Having distress motivating your child to stop watching television or playing video games and playing outside instead? Then consider making a part of the company of his family.

Many people are aware of the health benefits that come from having a pet, includinglowering high blood pressure, prevent heart disease and the fight against depression. But, what parents do not realize is that the addition of Spot, Polly and Mr. whiskers of the family can be a benefit to others the joy you

Second example

Young children are too young to worry about how to prevent stress or reducing health care costs, there are many advantages that may have experienced a family pet.

The animal, whether dog, cat, bird, hamster, reptile or fish, help children develop a sense of independence that may place them on track to become mature, responsible adults.

Animals Teach children to be responsible

Children can learn the importance of responsibility at an early age by acting as a custodian of an animal. Fish are an incredible animal first, because children can play an vital role in caring for them. But, other animals that need more attention

Three samples:

Teaching children to be responsible for the survival of another creature can lead to teaching valuable life lessons such as discipline, patience, kindness and care.

Pets can help children develop discipline

Walking the dog, feed the Guinea pigs and talk to the parrot can serve as a fun study break for children and a substitute for television programs and video games. These activities help children petrelated stay focused on the task at hand, and are less likely to become distractions that hinder the duties and tasks have been completed.

Preparing Kids For Pets

Life Situations

Bring a house pet and family can be an effective way to help prepare

Readability Formulae: Facts and Limitations

Introduction

How simple is it to read a text? How clearly does a text express thoughts and emotions? How could the linguistic difficulty of a text be determined and analysed? These questions have been one of the major concerns of text designers, teachers and writers. In actual fact, these questions are inextricably bound up with the concept of readability. In an attempt to provide answers to these questions, so many studies and research have been conducted and as a result, a large number of formulae were proposed to measure the readability of written texts.

In the theoretical part of this paper, I will highlight some of the ways that are used to determine the linguistic difficulties of written texts. Then, I will clarify some of the common examples of readability formulae and how they work. Finally, I will shed some light on the limitations and validity of these formulae. In the practical part, I will try to examine the readability of some texts by using the readability formulae mentioned in the first part.

1/ Determining linguistic difficulty of a written text

How hard a text is to read would appear to be related to whether or not we know the words in a text, and whether or not these words are place together in an simple‑to‑follow manner. In fact, readability formulae do use these basic criteria and discuss them in terms of vocabulary difficulty and syntactic complexity (Olson, 1984). Vocabulary difficulty refers to the degree to which a text contains words that are unfamiliar and/or hard to know. Syntactic complexity refers to the degree to which the sentences in a text have complicated grammatical structures. I shall now discuss these basic criteria.

a) Vocabulary difficulty

Word difficulty is a criterion used by nearly all the standard readability formulae. Difficulty is measured either by the presence or the absence of a word on a list of frequently used words, such as Kucera and Francis’s word list (1967), or by word length which is determined by counting the number of syllables in the word. But, both methods appear to have serious limitations, as I show below.

b) Word lists

A number of readability formulae such as Dale‑Chall (Dale and Chall, 1948) use word lists. The assumption underlying the use of word lists to measure the difficulty of vocabulary in a text is that frequently used words will be more familiar and therefore simpler to know. But, in order to have a word list that includes either familiar or hard words, one must assume that the words in a language remain relatively stable and this is impossible due to the fact that vocabulary tends to change quite rapidly. If we consider the following words from Dale’s 3000 word list (Harrison, 1980, pp. 153‑163): hairpin, maypole, cobbler and washtub, it would appear to us that these words are likely to be unfamiliar to young readers (elementary school children) because they are rarely used (they are out of fashion). On the other hand, some other new words such as download, hyperlink have entered the language and have become extremely familiar to many if not most people. Now, we might say simply that the former words should be taken off the list of familiar words and the latter words should be added instead. Since a number of readability formulae use certain word lists most of which are ancient, it could be inferred that the results of using these formulae do not really represent or provide the accurate level of readability for the current written texts.

In addition, word lists never take into account that different socio‑cultural groups of the same generation have very different core vocabularies. Nor can they accommodate the fact that different professional groupings can have radically different vocabularies (Kittredge and Lehrberger, 1982). Another problem with word lists is that words frequently have more than one meaning. In such case, what meaning is to be considered a familiar one? It is only through viewing and examining the word in the context of a particular text that one can know about the intended meaning. In conclusion, word list provide neither an indication of which meaning is common (familiar), nor a means to identify the particular meaning that is pertinent in a specific context.

c) Word complexity

In many readability formulae (for example, the Fry graph, the Flesch formula, Gunning Fog formula, see Harrison, 1980), the longer a word is, the more hard it is assumed it is to comprehend. The thought is applied in different ways. In the case of Flesch and the Fry formula for example, the criterion is the number of syllables per 100 word of text whereas for the Gunning Fog formula, the criterion is the number of polysyllabic words. Regardless of how word complexity is measured by different formulae, but, the assumption is that word length directly relates to the ease or difficulty with which a text can be read.

The problem with this assumption but, is that long words are not always the most hard to know. On the contrary, there appear to be a significant number of instances where mono or bisyllabic words are more hard and unfamiliar than longer polysyllabic words. If we consider the words curr and unemployment, the number of readers who know the latter term is quite likely greater than those who know the former. From the previous example, we could say that word length is often the direct result of affixation (attaching prefixes e. g. un‑ or suffixes ‑ment with shorter words and word stems, as in unemployment). In actual fact, people are likely to be aware of the functions of these affixes and prefixes and therefore, a more complex word ( a word with one or more affixes) may be just as simple to know as a simple word. But still, reading formulae that count the number of syllables per hundred words would favor a text that has only uninflected forms of verbs.

In addition, Randall (1988) experiments on the relationship between understanding and morphological complexity. tested children between the ages of 3 and 7 in their understanding of morphologically complex words (nouns derived from verbs by placing-ER). Their results suggest that understanding the complex terms has nothing to do with the word length or frequency of occurrence, as required by the readability formulas.

d) The syntactic complexity

Nearly all of readability formulas to equate length of sentence to the syntactic complexity. They believe there is a correlation between the average length of sentences in a text and the difficulty of the text. In fact, research shows that the length of sentences may really facilitate understanding, rather than prevent it. For example, the presence of conjunctions and logical connectors increases the length of the sentence, but they are often the explicit intention of communication link. Compare, for example, sentences (1) with sentence (2):

(1). a. I could not answer your e-mail.

b. All the computers were occupied.

(2) a. I could not answer your e-mail, because all teams were employed.

In (a) may be several reasons that the author was unable to respond to an e-mail other than the fact that all units were occupied, he would not have time to wait for a computer is free, it could a conference or meeting, so that he could not wait. . etc., because in (two) in the others behind, a clear link between the inability of the author to answer the e-mail to the occupation of all teams. In conclusion, based on the examples above, one could say that the syntactic complexity equivalent to the length of punishment is neither useful nor a specific criterion for measuring readability.

2 / Examples of readability formulas

There are a number of readability formulas that are designed for very different purposes, and for a variety of age groups. These formulas have been designed by psychologists, researchers and teachers in the classroom and have been calculated using different statistical techniques and measurement. In this section, I focus on only four of them for two reasons. First, these four are some of the readability formulas most commonly used. Second, they are very simple to use and requires no mathematical or statistical complex. These formulas are:

A) The Flesch formula

The Flesch formula is one of the most used and known readability measures developed by Flesch (1948). The formula uses the average number of words per sentence and the average number of syllables per 100 words as variables. Flesch was interested in the evaluation of adult reading materials, so they opted for an index of difficulty is not related to grades, but a theoretical understanding score of 100 (Hlarrison, 1980). When applied to a document, the Flesch formula result in a number between 0-100. The higher the score the more hard matter to read and know. In addition, Flesch had an episode of transformation that allows us to relate the readability score for the age level. This table is a nomograrn processing (a number) that can be used easily by using a rule among the columns left and right hand of the figure. The Flesch formula is used not only by hand, also used in most word processing programs like Microsoft Word. The only difference is that the adjustment formula for computing the Flesch, the number of syllables is replaced by a number of vowels gives nearly the same results as if there is one syllable. Research by Coca-Cola and Rothkopf (1970) showed that estimates vowels always rely very similar to counting syllables.

B) The graph Fry

Because most readability formulas, Fry is a factor graph syntax is the length of the sentence and a semantic factor is the number of syllables. The chart Fry is one of the simplest ways to obtain an index of readability. The use of graphics is very useful in this form for different reasons as shown by Harrison (1980):

1) save time doing calculations

2) that the visual information when the numerical results can give a fake impression of precision

3) the graphic user can tell at a glance if a passage is relatively more hard than the average in vocabulary or sentence length. (Harrison, 1980. P. 73)

In the graph, the curve represents the standard texts. Clearly then, the points on the line, or to the upper right quadrant, are represented the most hard passages average vocabulary. On the other hand, points below the curve to the left lower quadrant, suggesting greater than average length of sentence (ibid.). To implement the graphical Fry, one must first randomly select three sample passages exactly 100 words (from the beginning, middle and end of text). When the total number of sentences and syllables of each of the passages of 100 words was recorded, the average number of sentences and syllables is calculated. The resulting figures shown in Figure Fry and the resulting point coordinates associated with a designated grade level indicated (a more detailed explanation of the use will be posted to the practice.) Chart Fry is appropriate for the evaluation of quality materials at University (Fry, 1969).

C) Formula Fog Index

The Fog, index that uses only 100 successive words to determine the length of sentences at a time and the number of words of three syllables or more, was developed by Gunning (1968). The accounts are then fed into a formula and the difficulty of reading is based on educational attainment of formal education. For works already written, the author recommends selecting several samples of 100 words from different parts of matter and then consider the length of sentences and the number of words of three syllables or more for all samples. Finally, the average of the previous account, must be calculated and the fog readability index is:

Formula Fog Sensitivity: Level = 0. 4 * (average percentage of sentence + words of three syllables or more).

The formula is similar to that of Flesch. Factors (sentence length and number of words) remain the same, but the count of three one-syllable words will be simpler and requires less time than the program required by the number of Flesch. Another advantage is the simplicity of calculation needed to solve the equation. This formula is appropriate to evaluate the material for the fourth class in college.

D) The formula SMOG

This formula gives the SMOG grade is the reading level of a person has reached the limit if you want to know the text fully evaluated (Gilliland, 1972. P 94). To apply the SMOG formula, you must have 10 consecutive sentences near the beginning, 10 near the center and 10 at the end of the text. Then, in the 30 selected sentences, the number of words of three syllables or more is counted. Finally, the square root of the number of polysyllabic words is counted and added to 3. It is obvious here that the sentences are used to prepare the samples, not used in the calculation. The formula gives SMOG readability score of 2 degrees higher due to the overall success McLaughlin used as criteria for understanding (ibid.). Smog is quicker to work by hand, it does not need to count every word of every sentence, but the words of three syllables or more in 30 sentences.

If a text is less than thirty convictions, McLaughlin (1969) recommended that the number of polysyllabic words, and the number of convictions should be counted in the text. The process of finding the readability of a text under 30 words appearing in the practical part (examination of the text given). Also available in annex.

3 / Factors affecting the readability

As mentioned previously, nearly all use complex word readability, sentence length and syntactic complexity represented by the word length or number of syllables in a word. Many other factors that may affect the readability, to some extent have not been considered by these formulas. In this case, I will discuss how these factors affect the readability and why they should be taken into account to measure readability. The factors are:

a) Grammar

I mentioned that most readability formulas tend to equate the syntactic complexity with sentence length is really a very closely to see the complex syntax. For example, readability formulas ignore some fundamental issues such as the conventional use of the normative grammar for standard written English. In other words, they ignore the fact that errors or deviations from the grammar can make text harder to know and not take into account that the presence of a considerable number of grammatical errors can seriously affect the reader’s ability to know the text. If one considers the risk of confusion caused by a lack of parallelism, as in:

- Not only but also likes his wife.

In fact, it is unclear if the intended meaning of this sentence is that we do not like him and his wife, or that we are not the only ones who despise him, his wife does not like too. There are a few other grammatical errors can be a source of confusion in the written text and some of them are the enforcement of sentences, sentence fragments, faulty parallelism, and pronoun references. In conclusion, we could say that the grammatical errors should be considered in the process of measuring the readability of a text to make accurate and reliable measurement.

b) Style

Sometimes a text can be perfectly grammatical, but some stylistic features of text can make it relatively more hard for people to treat than others. One of these style properties is the number of clauses in a sentence and the nature of these clauses. In fact, there is empirical evidence that some syntactic properties that some texts are simpler to treat than others. For example, Van Dijk and Kintsch (1983) notes that sentences with relative clauses simpler to analyze when a relative pronoun is clearly present only when it is. Kintsch and Van DLI compare the following sentences and note that people perform better on comprehension tasks in (1) the apparent relative pronouns, as in (2), where they are absent;

1) The pen of the author of the editor liked used was new

2) written by the author to the editor liked used was new (Van Dijk and Kintsch, 1983, p. 29)

It is therefore clear that the syntactic structure of sentences is not the only style property of a text can affect legibility. The use of imagery is a stylistic feature that can cause problems for the reader, because understanding the figurative language requires more than just understanding the literal meaning of a text. readability formulas consider the style or stylistic features or not to measure the readability of a text, which in turn affects the accuracy of the overall results.

c) habitat

readability formulas judge a text to be simple or hard to measure the properties of the text, but never take into account the characteristics of readers. These different forms have been designed for use with Aboriginal and non-language students by second or foreign language. It is undeniable that these groups differ in their prior knowledge and their language skills and the ability to know written texts. There is evidence to suggest that the characteristics of players (which were ignored by the readability formulas) have much to do with his ability to know text. For example, Barry and Lazarte (1998) report results of a study on the effects of prior knowledge and syntactic complexity in memory and the generation of inferences in a second language Spanish students. Their results suggest a complex interaction between the level of syntactic complexity of the text itself and the knowledge of students before generating inferences about the text. Finally, one could say that the material is simple to read for one group to another so easily and it is partly because students have basic knowledge on various different subjects. Therefore, readability formulas should consider this vital factor in measuring the readability of a text.

d) textual coherence

Most readability formulas to limit the scope of its investigation to the choice of the border. On the other hand, to evaluate texts in terms of properties of each of his sentences contain. But, the readability of a text is not only a function of the average length of words or the average number or words in his sentences, the reading is more a function of connections and relations between sentences from a text. Pumping and Grafstein (1991) suggest that for a text beunderstandable should clearly indicate to the reader the logical relations between sentences from base to which he / she is able to determine from the text, who does what to whom. In other words, the sentences of a text should be logical and sequential relationships so that the text is simple to know. Finally, Harrison (1986) indicates that the presence of logical links explicitly mentioned often contributes to the coherence of a text.

4 / The limitations and validity of readability formulas

Although readability formulas are widely used and is based on the design of textbooks, has many limitations that may affect its validity to a certain extent. readability formulas were originally developed to try to ensure that a textbook for a particular type was suitable for native speaking children at this level of quality. But, even within the same class, children differ from each other and sometimes they are very large differences in the extent of readability formula itself can not be excellent for them. In other words, readability formulas do not distinguish between public, but rather assume that all players are equal. If this is the case of children whose mother tongue, these formulas are more likely to have more problems when used with students second or foreign language. Klare (1963, pp. 24-25) states that:

Formulas for measuring the unique style. They do not refer to content, organization, word order, the formatting or images. They do not take into account different effects, maturity, intelligence drives.

On this basis, it becomes clear to us that readability formulas are not intended to say anything about the shapes or other visual materials primarily, but these forms and other visual aids play an vital role in enabling the reader to know the text. In another related study, Klare (1976), reviewed 36 studies that have attempted to improve understanding by improving the readability scores. It concluded that greater understanding is not a excellent correlation with the levels of improved legibility, and readability formulas measure only what can be added to the text. The reason this experiment has not worked is that the measure of readability formulas that symptoms of readability. hard thoughts are usually expressed in a hard language (which is the case), thoughts will be less hard because the language is simplified. It is therefore clear that the trial on the level of difficulty of the text go beyond the statistical nature of readability formulas tend to rely on measures of semantics (or word length is usually the frequency of words) and syntactic (sentence length in general) characteristics.

Furthermore, readability formulas do not take into account the fact that there is an interaction between text and reader. Not take into account some vital factors on the side of the player’s knowledge of the text and their motivation to read. All these factors have a major effect on the text that makes it much simpler or hard to read much. All these formulas take into account is the text and ignore all other factors. Therefore, they are insufficient because they believe that the only source of information that is contained in the printed page.

Because readability formulas are designed to analyze prose, problems arise when these formulas are used to technicians, scientists, mathematicians and materials that contain large amounts of numeric and symbolic language and specialized vocabulary, and the prose. Of course, applies to this type of text, reading will continue to use traditional measures of word length and sentence length, and this in turn does not reflect the level of reading of these texts. Finally, and based on everything that is mentioned above, you should not use readability formulas as in the choice of materials, but must seek expert advice or obtaining a reliable consensus to examine the characteristics that formulas can not be predicted. Only if we integrate all these factors that readability formulas can be beneficial for us, otherwise I really did not leave a fantastic utility.

5 / Test reading texts.

In this part, I’ll apply readability formulas clarified above to measure the readability of two different texts. Let me start by examining the text (see Appendix 3) using the four formulas, and then I shall examine the text B (see Appendix 4) using the same formulas.

SMOG 4 / McLaughlin ‘Formula.

Because the text (B) has 30 words, I considered the number of phrases in the text and the total number of words of three syllables or more as recommended by McLaughlin (1969), see appendix (2).

The total number of phrases in the text B = 18

The total number of words of three syllables or more = 58

The corresponding conversion number = 1. 67

Grade = The total number of words of three syllables or more * The number conversion

= 58 * 1. 67 = 96. 86

The value 96. It is situated between 86 (91-110) of the SMOG conversion table 1. Therefore, the grade is 13.

As shown in the table above, there are formulas to meet with exactly the same age or reading. But, some forms reach very close to both the level and age, as in the formulas DOF Gunning and smog. Similarly, Larrick (1954) from the investment grade set by five types of two books for children. He learned that there were significant differences between formulations in terms of grade level. This underlines the fact that readability can not be measured accurately by merely using readability formulas. The student’s ability to know the style, and other factors that were mentioned in the first part should be taken into account and should never be ignored in the measure of readability.

Conclusion

In conclusion, researchers and designers of textbooks should be aware that the readability formulas using only one level does not reflect the actual reading of a text. In addition to these formulas, try to integrate all the other factors that could affect the readability of texts, whether these factors can be found in the text (word and sentence complexity) or outside texts (the factors that have to drive with the knowledge, motivation and individual differences among readers in the same class). Try to take these factors into account in measuring the readability of written materials. On the other hand, it should consult experts in reading and teachers to try to reach a consensus on the readability of texts and their adaptation to the level of undergraduate students.

Bibliography

Rescue, A and Grafstein, A. (199 1). The assignment of thematic roles in Ojibwa. Linguistics 29, 397-422.

Barry, S, Lazarte, A. A. (1998). The evidence of mental models: how knowledge, syntactic complexity and reading about for inference affect production in a recall task for nonnative readers of Spanish? The Modern Language Journal, 82 (2), 176-193.



Coca-Cola, E and Rothkopf, E (1970). Note on a simple algorithm for readability score produced by computer. Journal of Applied Psychology 54, 208-210.

Fry, E. (1969). Readability Chart validated at primary level. The reading teacher, 22, 534-538.

Olson, A. V. 1984. Readability Formulas reality or fiction. University of Victoria, British Columbia Service (ERIC Document Reproduction No. ED 258 143).



Kuceral, H and Francis, N. W. (1967). Computer Analysis courses in American English. Province, RI: Brown University Press.

Harrison, C. (1980). Accuracy in the classroom. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Harrison, C. (1986). New directions in research in reading texts. In Cashdan, Asher (Ed.), Literacy: teaching and learning language skills. Basil Blackwell, Oxford, pp. 61-81.

Kitteredge, R and Lehrberg, J. (Eds.) (1982). Sub-language: studies on the language in restricted domains. Berlin and New York: Walter de Gruyter.

McLaughlin, G. (1969), smog classification: a new reading formula. Reading Journal, 12 (8) 639-646.



Randall, J. H. (1988). Candlestick makers: the problem of morphology in word comprehension. In: Issues of readability Davidson, A & Green, G (Eds.), Linguistic complexity and text comprehension: reconsideration. ErIbaum L., Hillsdale, New Jersey, pp. 223-245.



Klare, G. R. (1963). The measurement of readability. Ames, IA: Iowa University Press.

Larrick, N. (1954). Try it in the setting. Library Journal, 79 (April), 729-733.



Van Dijk, T. A and Kintsch, W. (1983). Strategies of discourse comprehension. New York: Academic Press.

Gilliland, John. (1972). Readability. London: University Press of London.

Schedule (1)

EDWARD FRY’S GRAPHIC READABILITY

Schedule (2):

From: McLaughlin, G. (1969), smog classification: a new reading formula. Reading Journal, 12 (8) 639-646.

Use this formula and the conversion table smog If the material containing less than 30 sentences, but not less than 10 sentences.

1. Count the total number of judgments in the field.

2. Find the total number of convictions and the corresponding conversion in the smog of the conversion in Table II.

3. Multiply the total number of words of three syllables or more by the number of conversions. Use the number as the number of words to find the right level degree in Table 1.

SMOG Conversion Table 1 conversion SMOG 2

(For more material) (use of equipment

Appendix (3)

The three sample passages in the text (A)

A sampling:

Pets improve the health of children

Children who have pets at home have stronger immune systems and are less likely to take days off from school due to illness, a study suggests.

Researchers at the University of Warwick, Coventry found that having a cat or dog exposed children to more infections early in life.

But, this exposure boosted his immune system in the medium term, means that these children attend school more often, on average, than students who do not have pets.

The authors said the benefits were more pronounced among children aged between five and eight years.

Dr. June McNicholas and colleagues tested the saliva of 138 (eight not included).

Second example

High levels of IgA suggest that the immune system is under pressure while low levels indicate that it is vulnerable to infection.

Health

The study showed that antibody levels in children of pet owners have been much more stable, which indicates they have a strong immune system.

children have been found that the Pet acquisition of nine additional days in school throughout the year compared to those without animals.

According to researchers, the results seem to support the so-called “dirty hypothesis”.

It is suggested that cleaning too early in life can leave a weakened immune system later.

Three samples:

Mr. McNicholas, a health psychologist who led the study, said: “Having a pet was associated with significantly improved attendance rates.

“This is evident in all classes, but was most pronounced in elementary school (grades one to three, groups of five to eight).”

“Here, pet owners have benefited from schooling to 18 half-days more per year than their non-pet owners.”

But, Dr McNicholas warned that the animals may also pose risks to the health of children.

One of the largest risks is the worm that infects dogs Canis toxic and can cause stomach ache to eye hurt.

Annex (4):

The three channels shown in the text (B):

A sampling:

Pets and children: a lifelong friendship

Is it her voice starts to sound like a broken record? Have you always tough their children with homework? Having distress motivating your child to stop watching television or playing video games and playing outside instead? Then consider making a part of the company of his family.

Many people are aware of the health benefits that come from having a pet, includinglowering high blood pressure, prevent heart disease and the fight against depression. But, what parents do not realize is that the addition of Spot, Polly and Mr. whiskers of the family can be a benefit to others the joy you

Second example

Young children are too young to worry about how to prevent stress or reducing health care costs, there are many advantages that may have experienced a family pet.

The animal, whether dog, cat, bird, hamster, reptile or fish, help children develop a sense of independence that may place them on track to become mature, responsible adults.

Animals Teach children to be responsible

Children can learn the importance of responsibility at an early age by acting as a custodian of an animal. Fish are an incredible animal first, because children can play an vital role in caring for them. But, other animals that need more attention

Three samples:

Teaching children to be responsible for the survival of another creature can lead to teaching valuable life lessons such as discipline, patience, kindness and care.

Pets can help children develop discipline

Walking the dog, feed the Guinea pigs and talk to the parrot can serve as a fun study break for children and a substitute for television programs and video games. These activities help children petrelated stay focused on the task at hand, and are less likely to become distractions that hinder the duties and tasks have been completed.

Preparing Kids For Pets

Life Situations

Bring a house pet and family can be an effective way to help prepare

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